Philosophy in the second half of the 19th century was based more on biology and
history than on mathematics and physics. Revolutionary thought drifted away from
metaphysics and epistemology and shifted more towards ideologies in science, politics,
and sociology. Pragmatism became the most vigorous school of thought in American
(5)philosophy during this time, and it continued the empiricist tradition of grounding
knowledge on experience and stressing the inductive procedures of experimental science.
The three most important pragmatists of this period were the American philosophers
Charles Peirce (1839-1914), considered to be the first of the American pragmatists,
William James (1842-1910), the first great American psychologist, and John Dewey (1859-
(10)1952), who further developed the pragmatic principles of Peirce and James into a
comprehensive system of thought that he called “experimental naturalism”, or
“instrumentalism”.
Pragmatism was generally critical of traditional western philosophy, especially the
notion that there are absolute truths and absolute values. In contrast, Josiah Royce (1855-
(15)1916), was a leading American exponent of idealism at this time, who believed in an
absolute truth and held that human thought and the external world were unified.
Pragmatism called for ideas and theories to be tested in practice, assessing whether they
produced desirable or undesirable results. Although pragmatism was popular for a time in
Europe, most agree that it epitomized the American faith in know-how and practicality, and
(20)the equally American distrust of abstract theories and ideologies. Pragmatism is best
understood in its historical and cultural context. It arose during a period of rapid scientific
advancement, industrialization, and material progress; a time when the theory of evolution
suggested to many thinkers that humanity and society are in a perpetual state of progress.
This period also saw a decline in traditional religious beliefs and values. As a result, it
(25)became necessary to rethink fundamental ideas about values, religion, science,
community, and individuality. Pragmatists regarded all theories and institutions as
tentative hypotheses and solutions. According to their critics, the pragmatist’s refusal to
affirm any absolutes carried negative implications for society, challenging the foundations
of society’s institutions.